The form of local elections varies from city to city, with several common variations. Some cities elect their local representatives by district, some have at-large elections, and some have both.
AT-LARGE, DISTRICT AND MIXED-SYSTEM ELECTIONS
Election systems in American cities are determined by the nature of the council members' constituency and by the presence or absence of party labels on the ballot (see Partisan vs. Non-partisan Elections). With regard to the first feature, there are two types of constituencies for city council members -- at-large and district.
Breakdown of types of city council elections by city size (2001)*
|
|
Small
(25,000-69,999) |
Medium
(70,000-199,999) |
Large
(200,000 and up) |
|
At-Large |
48.9% |
43.7% |
16.4% |
|
Mixed-System |
25.0 |
25.4 |
38.2 |
|
District |
26.1 |
31.0 |
45.5 |
|
n=649 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
*Study based on a mail questionnaire completed by a random sample of 664 council members in cities with
population of 25,000 and higher (Svara).
At-Large
All at large members are elected to serve the same constituency -- the population of the city as a whole. At-large election proponents favor having council members elected by the entire city because:
- Council members in an at-large system can be more impartial, rise above the limited perspective of the ward and concern themselves with the problems of the whole community;
- Vote trading and logrolling are minimized; and
- Better-qualified individuals are elected to the council (broader base of candidates).
However, at-large elections can weaken the representation of particular groups, especially if the group does not have a citywide base of operation or is an ethnic/racial group concentrated in a specific ward.
Nearly two-thirds (64%) of all municipalities use at-large elections in some way. At-large elections tend to be more popular in small cities and more affluent areas.
District
District elections select a single council member from a geographical section of the city, or ward. District election proponents favor having council members elected to represent individual wards because:
- District elections give all legitimate groups, especially those with a geographic base, a better chance of being represented on the city council (namely minority groups);
- Ward council members are more sensitive to the small but frequently important problems that people have (i.e.: needed stop signs, trash pick up); and
- District elections reduce voter alienation by bringing city government closer to the people.
However, councils elected by district elections may experience more conflict and be less efficient because of ward specific vs. broader constituency perspective.
Only 14% of all municipalities use strictly district elections. Cities with populations of 200,000 or more are more likely to use district elections.
In addition, quite a few courts have forced jurisdictions to switch from at-large elections to district elections and in most cases the reason was to allow more representation by specific ethnic/racial groups (see Springfield, IL 1987 and Dallas, TX 1990; see also amendments by the U.S. Congress to the Voting Rights Act, 1982).
Mixed-System
Some cities combine these two methods and elect some council members at large and some from districts (21% of municipalities use this approach). An individual council member will either occupy a district or at-large seat on the council. Mixed systems are most likely to be found in parts of the south and central city jurisdictions.
Sources:
MacManus, Susan A. and Charles S. Bullock, III. "The Form, Structure, and Composition of America's Municipalities in the New Millenium." In Municipal Year Book 2003. Washington, DC: International City/County Management Association 2003, p.15-16.
Morgan, David and Robert England. Managing Urban America, 5th Edition. 1999.
Renner, Tari and Victor S. DeSantis. "Municipal Form of Government: Issues and Trends." In Municipal Year Book 1998. Washington, DC: International City/County Management Association, 1998, p. 38.
Svara, James H. Two Decades of Continuity and Change in American City Councils. Commissioned by the National League of Cities, September, 2003.